How sucessful was the trade union movement in the post-Civil War era?

The Industrial Era (1876-1900) was one of the most important times in American History. It was somewhat the beginning of what our society is today with the development and advancement of big businesses and capitalism. The Industrial Era was a key to great things such as modernization, industry, and urbanization, yet was also brought the rise of poverty, congestion, pollution, corruption, and crime. Big business vs. workers was an extreme aspect of the Industrial Era. State and federal government played major roles in the development of big business. The Executive as well as Judicial branch of goverment played the largest role in promoting business intrests. Big business against workers led to the development of trade unions. As big business prospered, they became in more control of society especially being allied with the government. Adam Smith published The Weath of Nations as practically a bible for those who felt government should not be associated with business. Big business continued to prosper and began to hire more and more workers to increase their profit. This led to businesses to have to lower wages. This was the main issue in the Industrial Era. Those whom were unsatisfied with their "poverty wages" as business owners stuffed their pockets with profits, formed into what is known as Labor Unions. Though Labor Unions were a great cause and way to fight big business, they were only sucessful in organization rather than making any long-term changes as they planned, meaning they were, as a whole, unsucessful in their goals.

The first major national trade union was formed right after the end of the Civil War. It was the National Labor Union (NLU). It was the first trade union to organize workers without specific requirements based upon race, gender, or level of skill. It was also open to workers of both agarian and industrial economy. Some of its goals included higher wages and the eight-hour worday. It was a time period where a ten-hour workday was average. Many workers worked longer than this. NLU was sucessful in winning eight-hour workdays for FEDERAL employees. The wages did not change nor did work hours for those in agarian or industrial work.

The Knights of Labor union was organized in 1869. Led by Terence Powderly it was somewhat opposite of the NLU. Though the NLU was in favor of equality amongst races and genders, Powderly believed in "arbitration to the strike". The Knights of Labor's objectives tended to be radical yet their approach was more modest. Membership rates of the Knights of Labor rapidly increased to three-quarters of a million members before the dreaded Haymarket riot in 1886. The Haymarket riot was was organized to protest the treatment of workers at the McCormick Harvester factory. During the protest, due to the police methods of stopping the riot an "unknown assailant", tossed a bomb klling officers ordered to stop the protest. This led to American society to blame labor unions for the violence.

The American Federation of Labor(AFL) was the union whose goals were set as "realistic". The leader of AFL was Samuel Gompers. AFL was open to skilled workers. Gompers used his membership powere to win concessions from management. It was more sucessful than the other unions. Though it was the most sucessful it was not as great as it would eventually become in the twentieth century.

Last was the Industrial Workers of the World(IWW). This union was for those with revolutionary views. The IWW was primarily radical. They were willing to challenge owners for control of the businesses. The were not satisfied with just rasing wages. They believed ownership by the working class was the only solution to the labor system. They were led by "Big Bill" Haywood.

The main advantage business had over workers and labor unions was the alliance with the government. Usage of government is mostly prominent in the reactions to riots and protests. There is a similarity between them all. Some type of police or military force is always called upon when there was a protest or riot. Examples include the Railroad Strike of 1877, Haymarket Square Riot of 1886, The Homestead Strike of 1892, and The Pullman Strike of 1894. They all either call upon military forces or government intervenes to stop the protest. Even the Supreme Court handed down decisions controlling unions and undoing legeslation that could affect capital accumulation.

Other tacticts were taken by businesses to stop unions. Replacement workers or "scabs" would be hired to replace workers that were protesting. They would often wokr for less pay. Blacklists were created to make unon organizers and activists unable to recieve a job somewhere else. Their name would be taken and sent to other industries. Immigrants, women, and children were employed. Division was created by pay seperation usually based upon race. Unions would try to retaliate by sabotaging company property, slowing down the production process which led to less profits. There were also "sit down" strikes where workers would occupy the workplace and...sit.

In Conclusion, despite the tactics unions used to retaliate, membership in U.S. trade unions never exceeded more than three percent. Although federal government failed to address the nation's workers, government did recognize workers by creating a holiday. In 1894 U.S. Congress made Labor Day a national holiday. In the end, though labor unions were a great cause and way to fight big business, they were only sucessful in organization rather than making any long-term changes as they planned, meaning they were, as a whole, unsucessful in their goals.

REVISED:Analyze the differences and similarities of the three major Reconstruction plans:Lincoln's, Johnson's and the radical Republicans'.

Reconstrucion after the Civil War (1863-1877), played a critical role in the further development of America. It was mainly a stuggle for Blacks to achieve equality. It also was important in the reconstruction of the South after the Civil War. The Reconsrtuction era had its sucesses and it's failures. Reconstruction re-created the South and brought an extension of capitalism. It played a major role on determinig the nature of American nation-state. The government, especially Congress, stepped in and guided the nation in the right direction. The issue on what to do about Blacks, equality, and the ex-Confederacy paved the rode for Reconstruction plans. They favored each other and also conflicted. They even led to the impeachment of president Andrew Johnson. Three major Reconstruction plans were that of Abraham Lincoln, Andrew Johnson, and the radical Republicans, which all had significant similarities and differences, yet the radical Rebublicans was clearly the most fair and reasonable towards freed Blacks and reconstruction of the South.

The issue of what to do with newly emancipated Blacks plagued American society. In March 1865, Congress passed the Bureau of Refugees, Freedmen, and Abandoned Lands Act. It assisted freed slaves (and poor whites) who were destitute and in need of food and medical care. It provided farmland that had earlier been owned by slaveholders. Lincoln's plan for reconstructing the South could be considered "moderate". His plan was practically complete opposite of the radical Republicans. Lincoln wanted to quickly reincorporate the South back into the Union. His view was that the PEOPLE of the South did not secede; it was their economic and political leaders that led the South into secession and war. He believd that because government was "indivisible" secession was "politically impossible". His plan included these features: before a state could be readmitted into the Union, 10 percent of voters had to take a loyalty oath. The South had to accept the contract theory of government. Last, until the other requirements were met, military governers were sent to oversee conqured Southern states.

Radical Republicans originally thought that Andrew Jackson would be in favor of their Reconstruction plan, yet they were quite mistaken. Johnson practically adopted Lincoln's plan, then tweaked it to cover anything he found to be a fault. He believed in and therefore added into his plan the disenfranchisement of wealthy and politically powerful Confederate leaders. The issue was that Johnson frequently granted pardons to the same leaders he previously excluded from power. With this, the South's leaders became right back in charge. In 1872, the Amensty Act lifted political restriction on ex-Confederate leaders.

With the Confederacy leaders back in power, their first mission was to find another way to subordinate blacks. This eventually turned into the development of the Black Codes. They were designed to legally subordinate blacks. The Black Codes even denied blacks the right to own property. Furthermore, since blacks could no longer be enslaved, Confederacy leaders turned to making Blacks sign working contracts (as if they were indentured servants), paying little money and trying to make the blacks dependent on the owner. Blacks rights were abridged yet most did not have the courage to testify in court. Radical Republicans sought to change this.

Their Reconstruction plan in 1864, also known as the Wade-Davis Bill included: slavery was to be banned in the U.S. All high ranking Confederacy leaders were to be disenfranchised. Finally, 50 percent of a states citizens were to agree to a loyalty oath. Andrew Johnson ended up in a complete conflict with the radical Republicans because of the obvious differences within their plans. It eventually escalated and led to the Civil Rights Act of 1866. It stated Blacks were to be considered U.S. citizens and were given all rights stated in U.S. Constitution. The attempt to restrict Black rights was deemed illegal. Last, the federal government would enforce this act, not the states.

In Conclusion, I agree mostly with the radical Republican's plan. As an African-American in society today, it seems as if the radical Republicans plan should be implemented again. Lincoln's plan was obviously in favor of the Confederacy and did not show any remorse towards Blacks. Johnson's was completly unfair and unreasonable. It was only to lead the Confederacy back to the antebellum period once again. Yet in all, the three major Reconstruction plans were that of Abraham Lincoln, Andrew Johnson, and the radical Rpublicans, which all had significant similarities and differences.

So we didn't have a blog due this weekend but........

Dear Blog,

We didn't have a blog DUE this weekend. I'm taking some time to just write what's on my mind so....

December 7, 2007

This school year has been quite hectic. I'm so busy and caught up in so much work. I guess it's taking such a toll on me because I'm used to being able to procrastinate. My classes aren't hard they're....time consuming. I guess it takes so much time because I wasn't the best with time management. Now, I'm learning how to take control of my time. I'm practicing self-control. I'm reading my A.P. chapters now. It's actually not that hard. I just hate how I read and won't remember, come the day of the quiz or test. I guess it's nerves. History is quite fascinating. There are so many connections with our U.S. history and life now. I hate Health....it's so boring. I was a "preppie" so I took Health in 7th grade but since it's considered a mandatory class for all 7th graders and Freshmen anyways here I am taking it again. I don't understand why they take the time to teach us abstinence. Most kids aren't listening. Piano III is fine. I learned that there is an actual meaning in the composition Fur Elise by Beethoven. I love Photography. It's like a talent. I new i was a good poet and rapper but my photography is a gift. 4th period Lunch is..well....WILD...someone is always into something. A.P.U.S., I went over that already. Environmental with Nutakki is a hilarious class. My friends Steven and Matthew keep my laughing. English II is annoying because Ms.Neal talks so LOUD!!!!!!! Last is Geometry. By 8th period im half-way dead. I love Geometry though. It's so easy. It's like everything is connected to one another.

My extracurricular activities are the best. Im in Drama Starz(GO MS G!!!!) and Brotherhood. For the 3 years I've been at Kenwood there isn't much thats changed. I'm still trying to convince my mom to let me join a sport but she doesn't think I'll be able to balance it all. I guess this leaves me more time for my poetry and newly found talent, photography, I'm really good. I think I may pursue fashion photography. Also, heres my history part of this blog entry, I was selected to participate in MikVa Challenge and i get to campaign with a presidential canidate of my choice in New Hampshire for the primary election!!!!!!!!!!!!

I don't know what made me want to write about this but I took the time out to do it so I'm not erasing it. LOL. (Laughing Out Loud) Just incase you aren't up on internet lingo. :-) LOL ok...so im done...i guess....

HOLLA'

Anthony Keith Johnson, II

Evaluating the success of grassroots movements in the Age of Reform..

American grassroots reform movements goal was to improve an insufficient society. Though our American society was to be based upon freedom and equality, some were still unhappy with the outcome of American society. America steadily developed as a nation. Society began to not agree with American policies and began to impose new ideas within the growing nation. Conflicting opinions between the people of America is what caused the Age of Reform. The Age of Reform was a period of time, after the Second Great Awakening, in which reason was put over faith, where people began to try and change American outlooks on lives and responsibilities of women,slavery, the public educational system,and prison life. The Grassroots movements in the Age of Reform were both successful and unsuccessful in achieving their goals of women’s rights, abolition,public education, and prison reform.

During the Age of Reform, women and black slaves were equal to each other but not equal to the still powerful superiority of men. Both white women and black slaves could not vote. Though a difference can be noted that white women could very much so, own land as black slaves could not. Yet, as women married, their property was signed over to their husbands. The Age of Reform was time for women to capitalize on the opprotunity to seek liberty. The women's rights movement emerged as discontent by women no longer willing to undertake subjugation. A decade before, the Industrial Revolution had introduced the “Cult of Domesticity”. Movements led by Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Lucretia Mott, met at Seneca Falls, New York in 1848. This is where women would express in the "Decleration of Rights Sentiments" thier demands. It also included obtaining women's property rights. Women's rights movements activists, were also involved in the abolitionist movement. Even with the fight for women's rights, women still had to wait until 1919 to even vote in federal elections.

Slavery played an important role in the development of the United States. It has had it's good and bad effects on society. Slavery has played a role in pesidential elections and played an even larger role in territorial expansion, like how the Union was unsure of whether Texas was to become a slave state or free. Or its role in the Missouri Compromise. Slavery was a major element of the Civil War. Some abolitionists wished to destroy slavery in completion. These abolitionists were citizens such as Fredrick Douglas and Harriet Tubman. Also, many other white northerns like William Lloyd Garrison, owner of The Liberator, an influential newspaper in abolitionist circles and Lucretia Coffin Mott risked their lives doing what they thought was better for society. Abolitionists did not take into consideration the negative effects aboloshing slavery could have on the infrastructure of American economy.

Many children at the time were schooled by their mother or father by means of Republican Motherhood. The Industrial Revolution introduced inventions as the cotton gin, mechanical reaper, and the steamboat. Many children did not have the time or money to go to school. Horace Mann was one of the most outspoken advocates of education reform. He believed in a tax-supported public schoopl, like CPS today. Noah Webster was noted as “The Schoolmaster of the Republic”. As white girls and boys were provided education, black children were still suffering from slavery. The statement “education for all” clearly did not mean for everyone.

American citizens whom were mentally ill were locked in poor houses and jails. People such as debtors were locked up for threatening the American economy. During the early 1800’s,Dorothea Dix, whom was outraged by the treatment of the mentally ill, paved a road for better treatment for the ill minded. Idealism changed from keeping criminals and ill patients apart from society to teaching them their wrong-doings.

Grassroots movements in the Age of Reform were made possible by leaders such as William Lloyd Garrison, Lucretia Coffin Mott, Horace Mann,and Dorothea Dix, whom were looking for ways to better American society. All of the movements have both their positive and negative affects on society. In conclusion, this is why grassroots movements in the Age of Reform were both successful and unsuccessful in achieving their goals of women’s rights, abolition,public education, and prison reform.

REVISED:In going to war against Mexico, President Polk was..........

In the two centuries since the ratification of the Constitution, the size of the Unites States has more that quadrupled. Our first four presidents gave voice to an expansionist imluse: Washington called the new nation a "rising empire" and Adams remarked the United States was "destined to occupy all of the northern part of this quarter of the globe and that when accomplished, would be a significant achievement for mankind". Jefferson reffered to a "vast territory that would provide room enough for the descendants to the thousandth and ten thousandths generation" and Madison urged that the United States "extend the sphere, extend the republic as one great respectable and flourishing empire". One historian has phrased it,"Empire as a way of life". Territorial expansion was an objective of the U.S. government from its inception, as witnessed by the removal of Native Americans and by the Mexican-American War. In going to war against Mexico, President Polk was taking into account the best intrests of the United States. President Polk was taking into account the best intrests of the United States in going to war with Mexico because it was advocating a basis of America, "territorial expansion", it allowed the expansion of the nation by aquiring California and New Mexico, and it would benefit the U.S. economically.

President Polk was taking into account the best intrests of the United States in going to war with Mexico because it was advocating a basis of America, "territorial expansion". When James K. Polk was inaugurated president in March 1845 he had several foreign policy objectives in mind: the settlement of the Oregon boundary dispute with Britain, which had almost led to military hostilities in the 1839 Aroostook War; the acquisition of California; and the incorporation of Texas into the Union. He achieved all of these goals. John Tyler paved the road for Texas statehood and despite oposition from antislavery forces, Texas was admitted on December 29,1845.

After the failure of the Slidell mission, an attempt to purchase the territory from Mexico, Pole resorted to a decidedly more aggressive and controversial posture; he sent troops into the disputed area near the Nueces River and the Rio Grande. Polk claimed that Mexican forces had crossed the border to attack Americans. U.S. forces had taken control of the entire southwest by 1847. The new U.S. commander Gen.Winfield Scott, captured Vera Cruz followed a short time later with a voctory in the Battle of Cerro Gordo. Once U.S. launched his lat attack on Mexico, Santa Anna fled and the U.S. won.

Polk's war with Mexico allowed the expansion of the nation by aquiring California and New Mexico. The Treaty of Guadalupe-Hidalgo(1848) included benifits for the U.S. Mexico recognized the American claims to the area north of the Rio Grande. Mexico ceded California and New Mexico to the United States in return for 15 milion. and the United States agreed to assume approximately 3 million in debts Mexico owed to American citizens. The land brought by the Treaty of Guadalupe-Hildalgo increased the size of the United States and extreme amount and easily fed into "territorial expansion".

Aquiring Texas into the Union became a benift towards the United States. Texas was focused on becoming independent from Mexico and was left independent for years, just to become under the Union. Texas was annexed in 1845. Unfortunatley for the antislavery believers, and fortunately for the Union Texas became a slave state. It allowed more crops to be cultivated and brought a more prosperous results to the United States.

In Conclusion,in the two centuries since the ratification of the Constitution, the size of the Unites States has more that quadrupled. Territorial expansion was an objective of the U.S. government from its inception, as witnessed by the removal of Native Americans and by the Mexican-American War. In going to war against Mexico, President Polk was taking into account the best intrests of the United States.Polk took account the best intrests of the United States in going it allowed to war with Mexico because it was advocated "territorial expansion", the expansion of the nation and it benefited the U.S. economically.

REVISED:Evaluate the presidency of Thomas Jefferson.

The "Revolution of 1800", or "peaceful transiton of power" was an important factor towards U.S. government. In the election of 1800, Democratic-Republicans Thomas Jefferon and Aaron Burr tied. The election then went into the hands of the House of Respresentatives. It was the support from Hamilton that made Jefferson president. The Jeffersonian Movement, embodied in the Democratic Republican party, represented intrests of the common man and farmer, democraticizing the U.S. It also favored limitations on power of the federal government and strict interpretation of the Constitution.The presidency of Thomas Jefferson had just as much of a positive effect on the United States as it did negative with the purchase of the Louisiana Territory, the "undeclared war" between the U.S. and the Barbary pirates, acts passed such as the Nonintercourse Act(1806), Embargo Act(1807), and Nonintercourse Act(1809), to deal with tension between the British and French, and the stronger judical branch of government brought by John Marshall and the Marshall Court.

The Louisiana Purchase (1803)was considered the most notable achievement of Jefferson's first term. French emperor, Napoleon, needed more money to fight Britain. A succesful slave revolt against the French on the Caribbean island of Santo Domingo led Napoleon to believe, if he could not control a small island in the Caribbean, he could not possibly control an enormous area of land west of the Mississippi River. Thus, he decided to sell France's last major territorial posseion in North America. For the Louisiana Territory, the U.S. only paid
$15 million. Therefore, the territory of the United States practically doubled in size. Jefferson organized an expedition led by Meriwether Lewis and William Clark to find out as much as possible about the newly bought land.

Though Jefferson had done such good by buying the Louisiana Territory from Napoleon, he, along with the rest of the U.S. government, also spent lots of American money. In North Africa, nations known as the Barbary States were seizing international ships and holding thier crews for ransom. Because the U.S. had no navy, its merchants were vulnerable. The U.S. government would pay tribute to protect its ships, but not until the U.S. defeated the Barbary pirates, did the U.S. cease paying the Barbary States.

Tensions between Britain and France worsened. The tension between the great powers interrupted American trading. From 1805 to 1810, Britain, France, and the United States, went back and forth vigorously. It became a battle of acts and decrees, intended to damper each other's success in trading. Jefferson’s nation held its own against Britain and France. Jefferson faired well with the foreign affairs between Britain and France, but mistakes and inadequacies became more apparent with acts such as the Nonintercourse Act(1806), that was inteded to halt importation of many British commodities but had little effect. Also, the Embargo Act(1807) which prohibithed all foreign trade, hurt the U.S. more than it helped. It had a devastating effect on New England economy and caused many New Englanders to give support to Charles Pickney, the Federalist canidate in the 1808 election. And then a regain of inteligence with the Nonintercourse Act(1809), allowing trade to be opened with all nations but Britain and France, unless either of the two nations repealed its trade restrictions against American shipping.

John Marshall, who was, ironically enough, a Federalist became Supreme Court Justice in 1801 after John Jay resigned, due to inactivity. The Marshall Court became strongly identified with vested rights in contract clauses, expanding the Court's jurisdiction, judicial nationalism over state's rights, blocking state regulations that limited property rights, and freeing American commerce from restraints placed on it by the states. Two of the most important cases of the Marshall Court would be Marbury v. Madison(1803) establishing the concept of judicial review, which is the implied power of the constitutionality of state and federal legislation. And McCulloch v. Maryland(1819) with the Court ruling that the government possesed the implied power to create a national bank; that the bank could not be taxed by a state because this would give the "power to destroy" to the bank; and that federal law is absolute over state law.

In conclusion, the presidency of Thomas Jefferson was a positive and negative battle within itself. Jefferson dealt with foreign challenges to sovereignty of the United States. Yet, the nation was steadily developing with the Louisiana purchase, and an enforcment of national pride with reaction towards the tensions of Britian and France. Also, we can not exclude the importance of John Marshall and the growth of the Marshall Court. So overall, the presidency of Thomas Jefferson had just as much of a positive effect on the United States as it did negative with the purchase of the Louisiana Territory, the "undeclared war" between the U.S. and the Barbary pirates,acts passed such as the Nonintercourse Act(1806), Embargo Act(1807), and Nonintercourse Act(1809), to deal with tension between the British and French, and the stronger judical branch of government brought by John Marshall and the Marshall Court.

To what extent were the Articles of Confederation an inadequate form of government?

The Articles of Confederation, were an inadequate form of government to an extreme extent.The Articles of Confederation's inadequacies are shown in that it was a confederation government, in that nature, it formed a weak central government and most power resided in the states, also, the AOC's inability to convey foreign affairs, such as the failure of the Treaty of Paris,and the AOC government had to request troops from the states,domestically, the government did not have authority to tax and did not establish a uniform currency.

The AOC was formed based on the colonies past with Great Britain. It was formed to not seem as a monarchy or that government was in complete control. With this the colonies had the upmost amount of power and that would only add as another inadequatecy of the AOC. The colonies were basically on a free for all and regulated themselves.The AOC was adopted by the Second Continental Congress on November 15, 1777. Then, all the colonists were concerned about was not returning their country to the way it was pre-Revolutionary War. An even amount of strong federal government and power within the hands of the people, to an extent, would have been the best form of government for the colonies at the time.

The AOC was unable to convey foreign affairs. After the war, relations with European powers quickly deteriorated, especially with the new nation's former nemisis, Great Britain. In some cases, the colonies brought issues upon themselves, like when they failed to abide by the Treaty of Paris. The U.S. promised to compensate loyalists for confiscated land and to pay foreign debts. Neither promises were met. The British also violated the Treaty of Paris. The British maintained forts in the Northwest Territory and since the states had to rely on troops from the states, all the United States could do is protest. The British also placed trade restrictions on an already weak U.S. economy. European nations reasoned that since the indivual states were themselves embroiled in trade disputes, commercial agreements with the United States would certainly be questionable.

Federalists, those whom favored a more central government, pointed out the weakness of the AOC not having authority to tax the colonies. The federal government had to request funds from the states. The main idea of the AOC was to not put an intense amount of power within the federal government.The federal government only collected money contributed from the states. Delivering taxes to the federal government was optional, with this, most colonies did not. This increased problems the United States had with the overall economy. The war's debt came down to individuals, which mostly included small farmers. This led to Shay’s Rebellion an influence on American government. Along with a weak overall economy, there was lack of a uniform currency. Since there was no uniform currency, everyone used a different type of money. Inflation rates and trade rates increased dramatically. Thus having a direct impact on business transactions within and between states.

In conclusion, this is how the Articles of Confederation made for and inadequate form of government. The AOC created a weak central government leaving power in the hands of the states, it was unable to regulate foreign affairs and did not have a chief executive or state department who could, and the AOC's inability to to tax the colonies, establish a uniform currency, or regulate trade. With this came a weak and inapt government upon the colonies.